The Violence Against Women Act Of 1994 - 1843 Words

Jafreicy Amparo Professor Flanagan POL 323: Public Policy Analysis July 28, 2016 The Violence Against Women Act of 1994 John Kingdon’s â€Å"Garbage Can† model argues that the policymaking process consists of three streams problems, politics, and policies that flow independently from one another. When these three streams meet it creates a window of opportunity and public policy is a result. The Violence Against Women Act of 1994 (VAWA) is an example of the Kingdon â€Å"Garbage Can model†. The VAWA was passed as part of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 in recognition of the severity of crimes associated with domestic violence and sexual assault. It was the first federal legislation that addressed violence uniquely targeted at women and their children. The Violence Against Women’s Act of 1994 provided $1.6 billion towards the prosecution and investigation of violent crimes against women and it also did a series of things that helped to improve criminal justice response to violence against women. The act strengthened federal penalties for repeat sex offenders and created â€Å"rape shield† laws that prevented offenders from using a victim past sexual experience in a trial of sexual assault. The VAWA required that protection orders be enforced and recognized everywhere in the United States. It increased the rates of prosecution, conviction and sentencing of offenders and funded the training for 500,000 law enforcement each year to ensure that the police who respondShow MoreRelated Violence Against Women Act of 1994 Essay1391 Words   |  6 PagesFor centuries domestic violence has been perceived as a private matter private of which the government has not been concerned about nor was it considered the government’ s business to intervene on behalf of a battered spouse. The unlawful nature of this failure for state or federal government intervention against this crime contributed to the systematic abuse of women in the family. The traditions, customs, and common law found in both British and American societies continued right up until the lastRead MoreDomestic Violence Against Women Act Of 19942168 Words   |  9 PagesAbstract Despite the fact the physical effects of domestic violence could be the similar as for other forms of violent crime, the emotional effects can be much worse. Domestic violence happens when a crime is committed against a victim by someone with whom the victim is or has previously found, in a close relationship or somebody living in the same household as the victim. Domestic violence regulations differ from state to state. These variances range from conceptualization to the requirements underRead MoreDomestic Violence Against Women Act Of 19943515 Words   |  15 Pages Domestic Violence Health Policy Yuliet Pozo Martinez South University â€Æ' Abstract Despite the fact the physical effects of domestic violence could be the similar as for other forms of violent crime, the emotional effects can be much worse. Domestic violence happens when a crime is committed against a victim by someone with whom the victim is or has previously found, in a close relationship or somebody living in the same household as the victim. Domestic violence regulations differ fromRead MoreGender Based Violence Is An Violation Of Human Rights962 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"UNPF (2005) contends violence against women as an extreme violation of human rights which results in harm and suffering. The United Nations 1993 definition of â€Å"Gender-based Violence is, â€Å"Any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivations of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life† (IRIN, 2015) This issue once believed to be tabooRead MoreThe Violence Against Women Act1498 Words   |  6 PagesElimination of Violence Against Women which called religious and cultural customs an excuse for gender-based violence (Goldscheid, 2008). In the early ‘90s, the Surgeon General referred to domestic violence as a threat to the health of Americans and in a similar move, the American Medical Association created a campaign targeted at ending domestic violence (Eisler, 1992). Taking its first formal stance on the issue, the outcry of the people lead the United States to pass the Violence Against Women Act in 1994Read MoreThe Violence Against Women Act914 Words   |  4 Pagesits enactment on September 13, 1994, the foundation for the Violence Against Women Act was being constructed. More than 140 years ago, members of the U.S. government were working to end the injustice of violence against women when, in 1871, Alabama was the first state to make it illegal for a man to beat his wi fe (U.S. Department of Justice, 2010). In 1967, one of the first domestic violence shelters in the country opened its doors in Maine; and from that time until 1994, progress slowly but steadilyRead Moredomestic violence act in Uk1627 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿Domestic Violence Act in UK Domestic can be defined in many ways but the simplest meaning is ‘involving the home or family’ whereas violence means an ‘act of aggression as one against a person who resist’. In addition, violence does not relate to relationship problem or issue but is social context of reflection of a man overruling woman. It happens to all walks of people in life despite of age, sex, race, assets and cartography. Notwithstanding, scoop by both male and female endure hurts duringRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Domestic Violence952 Words   |  4 PagesDomestic Violence is known as â€Å"Any abusive, violent, coercive, forceful, or threatening act or word inflicted by one member of a family or household on another can constitute domestic violence† (Clark, A. (2011)). Domestic violence has gone rapid in the homes of many families. Most people believe that whatever happens in a home should stay in the home. That idea is an issue when it comes to domestic violence. Not only is it an issue within the statement and household, it is also a social and distinctRead MoreImpact Of Public Health Of Domestic Violence847 Words   |  4 PagesThe impact of public health of Domestic Violence in United States. The violence against women is a global health problem of epidemic and unpreventable circumstances. Domestic violence doesn’t have a controlled policy because it can extend into the society with devastating effects on its victims and costs that ripple across the economy. The two major reasons that the issue are being addressed by policy are not enforced in actions. First reason is that every 9 seconds in the US a woman is assaultedRead MoreViolence Against Women s Violence872 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction Violence against women unfortunately is a very prevalent and critical issue in our society. It is a worldwide but still hidden problem. Freedom from the threat of harassment, battering, and sexual assault is a concept that most of us have a hard time imagining because violence is such a deep part of our cultures and our lives. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI), it is estimated that 84,376 forcible rapes were reported to law enforcement in 2012, estimated at 52

Philosophy, Phenomenology And Comparative Approachs

I believe there are six different approaches to religion. One approach is the psychological or individual aspect. Then there is the sociological approach which looks at group behavior. Then there is also the anthropological approach which is looks at societies, cultures and things of that nature. Lastly there is the philosophy, phenomenology and comparative approachs. The psychological approach to religion allows us to examine the individual. The psychology of religion is to understand the personal religious experience. William James who many deem the father of the psychology of religion field. William James had identified two types of individuals for this field. One was what he called the â€Å"healthy minded†. The healthy minded individuals ignored evil and only focused on the good and positive things. The other type of individual he identified was the â€Å"sick souled† person. These type of individuals are unable to ignore the evil and negativities in the world. They need a unifying experience such as religion to accommodate for good and evil. My point is that the psychology approach is the application of psychological methods to individuals. The sociological approach to religion looks at the group aspect. Durkheim saw religion as a tool for unifying people into a moral community. He saw these religious groups as an expression of society. Individuals in these groups sought out something greater than themselves which in turn form these religious groups or communities. Humans areShow MoreRelatedPhilosophical Assumptions and Key Concepts2432 Words   |  10 Pagestheory on hermeneutical phenomenology. My key assumption will be that appearances are less clear than they seem, and that, in order to think can act in a healthy manner, people are advised to reduce appearances to facts and to base their response on these facts. As far as I know, although some counseling approach, such s RET, peripherally touch on phenomenology with one of Ellis structures having client examine whether indeed incident really occurred, there is no counseling approach that actively andRead MoreHow Does Black Administrators Affect Postsecondary Educat ion For The Mid Level Administrator?7689 Words   |  31 Pagesunequal treatment of BAs who have experienced this phenomenon and progressed to positions as successful executive administrators. This chapter covers a number of topics that inform the approach that will guide the research; it also explores methodology and the rationale for using hermeneutic phenomenology. The resolve of this study is to begin to comprehend the phenomenon of microaggressions in postsecondary education for the mid-level administrator as experienced by those executive administratorsRead MoreResearch Paradigm14392 Words   |  58 Pagesu a l i t a t i ve , a n d M i xe d R e s e a r c h A research paradigm is a perspective about research held by a community of researchers that is based on a set of shared assumptions, concepts, values, and practices. More simply,it is an approach to thinking about and doing research.In this chapter we introduce you to the three major educational research paradigms or approaches: quantitative research, qualitative research, and mixed research. Mixed research also is commonly called mixedRead MoreEssay about A Critical Appraisal of Qualitative Research1756 Words   |  8 Pagesanalysis (TA) method was mentioned. Overall, the abstract did address the research question of interest and had elements present that influenced the believability of the research (Ryan et al, 2007). As all researches associate an underpinning philosophy (Ryan et al, 2007), here the intentions were derived from her previous works. The statement of the phenomenon of interest was clear (Holloway Wheeler, 2002), i.e. to gain an insight why informants, the radiographers, communicated in a particularRead MoreClinical Inquiry : Picot Question3367 Words   |  14 Pages Clinical Inquiry: PICOT Question A PICOT question is formulated in order to assist the researcher in obtaining answers to a specific question, decreases the uncertainty surrounding the issue, and provides a systematic approach to achieve an answer (Melnyk, Fineout-Overhold, 2013). The authors find that each component of the PICOT question drives the next step of the evidence based practice process. First, a specific population must be determined by controlling the groupRead MoreStatistical And Non Probabilistic Methods3639 Words   |  15 PagesAugust issue 2002). According to Engel and Teece, (2012) Entrepreneurial Management or strategic corporate entrepreneurship, seeks to create value through creative ideas and a forward-thinking mentality, resulting in a tangible contribution. This approach tries to create growth by optimizing internal resources to generate new concepts and to add value .It allows the company to review its core competencies and opportunities by internally empowering innovation .Strategic in novation can be describedRead More Transcending Herbert Marcuse on Alienation, Art and the Humanities4411 Words   |  18 Pagesand examines his notion of the dis-alienating power of the aesthetic imagination. In his view, aesthetic education can become the foundation of a re-humanizing critical theory. I question the epistemological underpinnings of Marcuses educational philosophy and suggest an alternative intellectual framework for interpreting and releasing the emancipatory power of education. Truth is ugly. We possess art lest we perish of the truth. Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power #822 What is theRead Morequalitative and quantitative research methods1823 Words   |  8 Pagesmethods underlying scientific knowledge. Qualitative research is often only defined in contrast to Quantitative research; That is, it does not involve statistics, nor does it depend on the level of objectivity that characterises the quantitative approach. While quantitative research aims to categorise participants in numerical form by creating statistical models to answer specific hypothesises; Qualitative research does not start with a specific hypothesis, instead it seeks to understand behavioursRead MorePhilosophy of Man8521 Words   |  35 PagesPHILOSOPHY OF MAN PROF. M. SAEED SHEIKH â€Å"Man† seems to have been quite a neglected subject in the history of Western philosophy; more attention has been paid to God and universe than to man. Though there are many reputable histories of the specific branches of philosophy; and even of some of its special subjects such as logic ethics, aesthetics, politics, law and history, a â€Å"history of the philosophy of man† has yet to be written and even vet to be conceived. True â€Å"man† has sometimes beenRead MoreThe Feasibility of Replicating the Social Enterprise Model Employed in Zambia2962 Words   |  12 Pages Methods Research Design This research is qualitative in its approach and it is grounded in phenomenology (Glasser Strauss, 1967; Lincoln Guba, 1985). A phenomenological philosophy is founded on the belief that the personal, individual accounts of research participants are important primary research sources of knowledge (Glasser Strauss, 1967; Lincoln Guba, 1985). The methods used in this research study are primarily those of grounded theory (Glasser Strauss, 1967; Lincoln Guba

Diaspora and Health Free Essays

Traditional Medicine and Culture in a Mexican Migrant Community in 2008. â€Å"As members of the Mexican Diaspora acculturate/ assimilate to life in the united States they gain skills that help them improve their socioeconomic status† (Walden, 2008), but their health deteriorates as their culture is lost. The importance of cultural competence in nursing includes recognition of how the deterioration occurs and practice the principles of healthcare ethics through autonomy, beneficence, malefaction, and justice while practicing healthcare for this population (Demonic, 2015). We will write a custom essay sample on Diaspora and Health? or any similar topic only for you Order Now Summary of Article The journal article being reviewed for this paper is a doctoral dissertation that studies the changes in overall health of the Mexican Diaspora after migrating to the United States. The writer presents a specific study group of migrant Mexican women in Georgia, as well as some general Mexican immigrant information from other sources, including California. The objective seems to be to educate the healthcare providers on the overall health of the migrants related to their choices of lifestyles. The two choices being to remain in a low- income but migrant population, or to assimilate and acculturate into the American populations. The primary research site for this study is in Athens, Georgia and takes place in a Spanish-speaking low-income neighborhood named â€Å"Los Duplex† and it focuses on women. The economy in Athens depends on the University students and much of the employment is with the service industry. The neighborhoods, or barrios, are small and isolated on the outskirts of town. Los Duplex has a community center that is nick named La Cellulite or Little School. The community center offers classes in English, parenting, nutrition, as well as after-school activities and homework help for kids. The community center has â€Å"†¦ Eloped cultivate a sense of community among the residents, who come from many different parts of Mexico† (Wieldiest, 2008). After describing how the study group was chosen and what all the details of the study were, Wieldiest continues on with the explanation of the difference in health the Mexican migrants face by either staying true to their culture or assimilating to their host culture. So many migrants come to America with the intention to work and return to their country and family, but when they start working and acculturating many of them choose to stay. Wieldiest explains that Mexican women are well-educated as part of their up- ringing, about the natural medicines. The native plants are used for all purposes of health. The two most popular medicinal plants are chamomile and peppermint. Not only the indigenous plants, but the whole foods that the Mexican woman prepare are fresh and have more protein, vitamin A, C, folic acid, and calcium than what the American born Mexican women and the women of European descent prepare. Wieldiest explains that this is because Mexican women’s definition of a good diet includes fruits, vegetables, and plenty of water. The women pointed out that mindful eating is important, only eating what the body needs, and eating outside of the home, â€Å"especially in the street’ leads to poor habits and sickness. Mexican women that were used in this study pointed out that staying calm, avoiding anger, staying active, caring for oneself and others, and getting enough sleep were also important, along with healthy eating. The migrants that came to America, but sought out their one culture to live amongst stayed active physically and socially. The types of employment available were manual labor jobs, agriculture, factory, restaurant work; all of which are active jobs where the errors had less chance to become sedentary and obese. By sticking to their own neighborhoods and social groups they stayed happy and active. Medicine and medical care is taken care of in the homes by the Mexican woman using natural remedies and herbs. Wieldiest learned that Mexican families expect the women to learn about the medicine and how to use them. The fresh herbs are preferred over the dry herbs that are purchased in the stores in America, but the plants don’t grow well in the America due to the weather changes. A most popular herb is chamomile to be used as a tea infusion. This is useful for Castro-intestinal problems because it has anti- spasmodic and anti-inflammatory properties. The women shared 42 different herbal remedies during the interviews. Two popular over-the-counter products the women used were Ethylene for headaches and Vic’s Vapor Rub for congestion. The most common prescription medications include anti- fungal, high blood pressure, diabetes, and antibiotic medications. Application to Practice The Mexican Diaspora who remain the healthiest tend to stick to their own culture when they migrate, however the women of this study recognize the deed for professional medical treatment. Going to the doctor is reserved for the most serious sicknesses that do not respond to home remedies. For this reason the migrants interviewed for this study told about the free clinics, women’s clinics, and public hospitals in Los Duplex area. Some Of the immigrants have insurance and some participate in low-income assistance programs. The hospitals in Athens have a well-funded low-income assistance program that even covers UN-documented immigrants. The hospitals and clinics used for this study had interpreters and bi-lingual healthcare revisers. The hospitals employ social workers to help enroll the children in programs like Medicaid, Women Infants and Children (WICK), and a local program in Georgia called â€Å"Peachier. † Healthcare barriers cited by Wieldiest that were reported by the Mexican women of Los Duplex include those that most healthcare workers. High cost of healthcare, no health insurance, poor English skills, and lack of transportation are the main barriers. In chapter 25 of Advanced Practice Nursing there is a definition for Principles of Healthcare Ethics: Ethical principles are universal rules of induct that identify which kinds of actions, intentions and motives are valued (peg 554). This is only a fraction of the definition, yet it is so profound. The women of this study value community, love, family, and healthy living. They are raised and taught as children to take care, nurture, grow, and heal themselves and their families and friends. Mexican women are autonomous, they choose for themselves how to live healthy. They are beneficent by demonstrating kindness and helping others. The health care system in place in the Los Duplex area should stay maleficent, avoid causing patients arm. If the women have exhausted the home remedies prior to taking their friends or family to the hospital they expect to be cared for, not harmed. â€Å"Justice is the obligation to be fair†¦ † And this is another expectation when people go to a healthcare facility (Barker, 2013. Peg 554-556). Nursing interventions should be in put in place for each barrier presented by a patient. An example of a nursing intervention for a family in the Los Duplex would be to have all forms in Spanish and English along with some type of interpreter offered. While admitting a Mexican migrant patient into a hospital r clinic, attention should be given to the culturally common home remedies. Fifth intake nurse is educated in the culture and now the patient has hypertension, then what other natural herbs or fruits and vegetables is the patient taking in that could be contra-indicated with a medication, and therefore rendering the high blood pressure medication that was previously prescribed, as useless. Nurses hold the power when it comes to connecting with patients, they are the driving force of the care continuum. The more the nurses know about the community culture and the patient culture, the better are can be offered and healthy outcomes achieved. Conclusion The study that was used for this dissertation touched on key concepts of cultural sensitivity in communicating with Mexican Diaspora, especially the women who care for their families and friends. As a migrant culture, the Mexicans are healthier if left to take care of themselves with their home remedies of healthy herbs, healthy diets, healthy mental status, and healthy social groups. As health care providers, it is important to maintain an ethical health care environment and respect the autonomy of the Mexican women ascribed in this paper. They treat their families and friends with beneficence and the health care providers need to remain maleficent when assisting the patients with their illnesses. Meanwhile, the organization of healthcare systems need to treat every patient justly, address the language barriers, the financial barriers, and insurance barriers with fairness and equality. The study of Los Duplex was a small group of Mexican migrants, and like other world cultures, there are many more cultural differences. The most important point is to respect the patient, listen and do the best job possible to et the needs of the mother or father or child sitting in the chair in need of medical attention, no matter what culture they are from. How to cite Diaspora and Health?, Papers

Evolution of ATO Compliance Model †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Evolution of ATO Compliance Model. Answer: Introduction: The present case study raises the issue relating to whether or not the sale of property can be held taxable under defined under section 6-5 of the Income tax assessment act 1997 (Barkoczy 2016). The existing issue is associated with Smith and Jones who are engaged in the business activities of development of property and also used the block of land for sheep grazing. Upon assessment, it is discovered that the business resulted in loss, which led the taxpayer to subdivide the land and selling the same. Application: The consequences of transacting in property or land will be taken into the considerations for assessment defined under several different portions of taxation law (Anderson, Dickfos and Brown 2016). There are two elements that have been taken into the considerations while determining the regimes of taxation, which is application on the disposal of sale or property or land, represents the nature of the dealings together with the taxpayers summary. According to the general rule selling of land forms the part of the trading stock or revenue asset in nature and such selling of land will be considered as the ordinary income. Conversely, if the land is disposed it is considered in the form of capital asset and the revenues that is generated from the selling of land forms the part of the capital gains tax for treatment (Brooks 2016). Division 70 of the ITAA 1997 defines that if the selling of property forms the part of business that is associated with the development then such kind of property will be considered as trading stock. Therefore, the issue that has arisen in this context is to determine whether the business activities of property is related to development (James 2016). As defined under section 995-1 of the Income Tax Assessment Act 1997 business is defined as the profession or trade carried out with the purpose of profit. As defined under the case of Ferguson v FC of T (1979) whether the business that is executed symbolizes as the subject matter related to fact. Furthermore, section 70-10 of the Income Tax Assessment Act 1997, states trading stock that is associated with the manufacturing, purchasing, acquiring or holding anything during the ordinary course of business (Braithwaite and Braithwaite 2016). As defined under the case of FC of T v St Huberts Island Pty Limited 78 land can be regarded as the part of trading stock if the same is acquired with the purpose of reselling it again (King 2016.). Hence, it forms obligatory in ascertaining the purpose of property development. On viewing the business nature, the block of land can be treated in the form of inventory. On the other hand, on evaluating the current scenario it is ascertained that the taxpayer with the objective of sheep grazing primarily used the block of land and the land was improved for that same objective. On analysing the current situation, it is understood that the particular block of land could not be treated as land that was primarily acquired with the objective of carrying trading stock (Jones 2016). It is noteworthy to denote that the land not acquired by Smith and Jones with the objective of reselling it, subsequently the land was held for that same purpose. As stated under the taxation rulings of 92/3 it lays down the guidance in determining the whether the income generated from selling of Isolated transaction should be held for assessment at the time of determining the assessable income defined under section 25 (1) of the ITAA 1936 (Long, Campbell and Kelshaw 2016). Furthermore, Para 6 of the taxation rulings 92/3 states that income that is derived from the isolated transaction should be considered as ordinary income given that the primary intention of selling such land was to derive profit during the ordinary course of business. Para 7 of the taxation rulings 92/3 provides th at the original purpose of the taxpayer should be to derive profit on the basis of facts and it should not be subjective. As defined under the Para 8 of the taxation rulings 92/3 the primary purpose of the generating profit does not need to be the ultimate reason of entering into the transaction (Morgan, Mortimer and Pinto 2016). Hence, it forms essential to possess the objective of making profit at the time of acquiring land. As defined under Para 13 of the taxation rulings 92/3 there are certain kinds of criterion that needs to be met in order to determine whether or not the isolated transaction should be taken into the considerations under the heads of ordinary income. As evident from the following case study that Smith and Jones acquired land with the objective of carrying out the objective of sheep grazing. On suffering loss in their business they undertook the decision of subdividing the block of land to generate profit. Therefore, the profit that is generated from the business activities would be considered as isolated transactions and will be included for assessment as ordinary income under sect ion 6-5 of the ITAA 1997 (Robin, Barkoczy and Woellner 2016). Conclusion: To conclude with as defined under the taxation rulings of 92/3 it is found that the business transaction of selling land will be held for assessment under the heads of isolated transaction. Therefore, the sum of income that is generated from such kinds of transaction should be treated under the heads of ordinary income under section 6-5 of the ITAA 1997. According to the Para 18 of the taxation rulings 98/1 income generated by the employer should be held under the cash basis. On the other hand, Para 20 states that earning method is the most suitable method for determining the income generated by the business (Russell 2016). Therefore, as evident from the current case accrual method of accounting must be used in the determining the taxable income. The taxation rulings of 92/18 states that bad debt should be treated in the form of deductions given that the income is included in the assessable income. according to the taxation rulings of 92/18 bad debt should not be considered for deduction if accounting for cash basis is followed (Woellner et al. 2016). On allowing the bad debt for deduction then the recovery of bad debt should be treated as taxable. Travelling to workplace from home should be regarded as private and the taxpayer cannot claim deduction for the expenditure incurred for the same. As defined under section 25-75 of the Income Tax Assessment Act 1997, an organisation cannot deduct the sum that is paid as rent and rates on the premises used for business purpose. As stated under Division 28 of the ITAA 1997, an organisation can claim for deduction for the sum paid relating to rent and rates on the premises used for business activities. Reference list: Anderson, C., Dickfos, J. and Brown, C., 2016. The Australian Taxation Office-what role does it play in anti-phoenix activity?.INSOLVENCY LAW JOURNAL,24(2), pp.127-140. Barkoczy, S., 2016. Foundations of Taxation Law 2016.OUP Catalogue. Braithwaite, V. and Braithwaite, J., 2016. Managing taxation compliance: The evolution of the ATO Compliance Model. Brooks, M., 2016.The long arm provisions of capital gain tax: An analysis of the capital gains tax consequences on the indirect disposal of immovable property by non-residents in selected African Countries(Doctoral dissertation, University of Cape Town). James, K., 2016. The Australian Taxation Office perspective on work-related travel expense deductions for academics.International Journal of Critical Accounting,8(5-6), pp.345-362. Jones, D., 2016. Capital gains tax: The rise of market value?.Taxation in Australia,51(2), p.67. King, A., 2016. Mid market focus: The new attribution tax regime for MITs: Part 2.Taxation in Australia,51(1), p.12. Long, B., Campbell, J. and Kelshaw, C., 2016. The justice lens on taxation policy in Australia.St Mark's Review, (235), p.94. Morgan, A., Mortimer, C. and Pinto, D., 2016. A practical introduction to Australian taxation law 2016. Robin BarkoczyWoellner (Stephen Murphy, Shirley Et Al), 2016.Australian Taxation Law 2016. Oxford University Press. Russell, T., 2016. Trust beneficiaries and exemptions from CGT: reflections on the Oswal litigation.Taxation in Australia,51(6), p.296. Woellner, R., Barkoczy, S., Murphy, S., Evans, C. and Pinto, D., 2016. Australian Taxation Law 2016.OUP Catalogue.

The role of genetics in development

Free Essays on Nelson Mandela

Profile of Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela Nelson Mandela's greatest pleasure, his most private moment, is watching the sun set with the music of Handel or Tchaikovsky playing. Locked up in his cell during daylight hours, deprived of music, both these simple pleasures were denied him for decades. With his fellow prisoners, concerts were organised when possible, particularly at Christmas time, where they would sing. Nelson Mandela finds music very uplifting, and takes a keen interest not only in European classical music but also in African choral music and the many talents in South African music. But one voice stands out above all - that of Paul Robeson, whom he describes as our hero. The years in jail reinforced habits that were already entrenched: the disciplined eating regime of an athlete began in the 1940s, as did the early morning exercise. Still today Nelson Mandela is up by 4.30am, irrespective of how late he has worked the previous evening. By 5am he has begun his exercise routine that lasts at least an hour. Breakfast is by 6.30, when the days newspapers are read. The day s work has begun. With a standard working day of at least 12 hours, time management is critical and Nelson Mandela is extremely impatient with unpunctuality, regarding it as insulting to those you are dealing with. When speaking of the extensive travelling he has undertaken since his release from prison, Nelson Mandela says: I was helped when preparing for my release by the biography of Pandit Nehru, who wrote of what happens when you leave jail. My daughter Zinzi says that she grew up without a father, who, when he returned, became a father of the nation. This has placed a great responsibility of my shoulders. And wherever I travel, I immediately begin to miss the familiar - the mine dumps, the colour and smell that is uniquely South African, and, above all, the people. I do not like to be away for any length of time. For me, there is no place like home. ... Free Essays on Nelson Mandela Free Essays on Nelson Mandela Profile of Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela Nelson Mandela's greatest pleasure, his most private moment, is watching the sun set with the music of Handel or Tchaikovsky playing. Locked up in his cell during daylight hours, deprived of music, both these simple pleasures were denied him for decades. With his fellow prisoners, concerts were organised when possible, particularly at Christmas time, where they would sing. Nelson Mandela finds music very uplifting, and takes a keen interest not only in European classical music but also in African choral music and the many talents in South African music. But one voice stands out above all - that of Paul Robeson, whom he describes as our hero. The years in jail reinforced habits that were already entrenched: the disciplined eating regime of an athlete began in the 1940s, as did the early morning exercise. Still today Nelson Mandela is up by 4.30am, irrespective of how late he has worked the previous evening. By 5am he has begun his exercise routine that lasts at least an hour. Breakfast is by 6.30, when the days newspapers are read. The day s work has begun. With a standard working day of at least 12 hours, time management is critical and Nelson Mandela is extremely impatient with unpunctuality, regarding it as insulting to those you are dealing with. When speaking of the extensive travelling he has undertaken since his release from prison, Nelson Mandela says: I was helped when preparing for my release by the biography of Pandit Nehru, who wrote of what happens when you leave jail. My daughter Zinzi says that she grew up without a father, who, when he returned, became a father of the nation. This has placed a great responsibility of my shoulders. And wherever I travel, I immediately begin to miss the familiar - the mine dumps, the colour and smell that is uniquely South African, and, above all, the people. I do not like to be away for any length of time. For me, there is no place like home. ... Free Essays on Nelson Mandela Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was born in a village near Umtata in the Transkei on the 18 July 1918. His father was the principal councillor to the Acting Paramount Chief of Thembuland. After his father s death, the young Rolihlahla became the Paramount Chief ward to be groomed to assume high office. However, influenced by the cases that came before the Chief s court, he determined to become a lawyer. Hearing the elder’s stories of his ancestors’ valour during the wars of resistance in defence of their fatherland, he dreamed also of making his own contribution to the freedom struggle of his people. After receiving a primary education at a local mission school, Nelson Mandela was sent to Healdtown, a Wesleyan secondary school of some repute where he matriculated. He then enrolled at the University College of Fort Hare for the Bachelor of Arts Degree where he was elected onto the Student's Representative Council. He was suspended from college for joining in a protest boycott. He went to Johannesburg where he completed his BA by correspondence. He entered politics while studying in Johannesburg by joining the African National Congress in 1942. At the height of the Second World War a small group of young Africans, members of the African National Congress, banded together under the leadership of Anton Lembede. Among them were Mandela and others. Starting out with 60 members these young people set themselves the formidable task of transforming the ANC into a mass movement, taking its strength and motivation from the unlettered millions of working people in the towns and countryside, the peasants and the professionals. In September 1944 they came together to found the African National Congress Youth League. Mandela soon impressed his peers by his disciplined work and consistent effort and was elected as the secretary of the Youth League in 1947. Later he was elected as President in 1950 and then deputy national president in 1952. When the A...

Collaborative Consumption Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Collaborative Consumption - Essay Example The concept of collaborative consumption has been aided by advancing technology and peer communities that reinvents old behaviours of the market on new scale and ways that have not been witnessed before. Examples of aspects that enhance collaborative consumption include: car sharing marketplaces such as Zipcar, huge marketplaces such as Craiglist and eBay, and peer-to-peer communities such as GuideHop (Walljasper, 2010, p. 28). Several studies have shown that collaborative consumption is greatly disrupting the traditional business models, while at the same time reinventing old market behaviours thereby influencing how people consume and what they consume. Since collaborative consumption is disrupting the traditional business models and reinventing old market behaviours, it is conceivable that this new era will require a dramatic re-evaluation of everything that we know regarding improvement of the relationship between the customers and the suppliers. It is no doubt that the extent of re-evaluation would be bigger than even imagined. This is some sort of paradigm shift from â€Å"common consumption† that has been characterized by a number of problems, miscommunication being its biggest problem (Baron and Harris, 2008, p. 113). Collaborative consumption is informed by the theory of collaboration which basically states that collaboration is enhanced among people when the collaborators are expecting beneficial outcome from the collaboration. Price et al (2006, p. 51) argues that this theory holds that collaboration is vital towards eliminating inherent selfish nature of human beings by making them see benefits out of combined actio ns and efforts. Further, collaborative consumption is informed by the collaboration theory assumption that it has a causal outcome; that is, if causal outcome is higher then the collaborators would have higher commitment and participation levels. Even though â€Å"common consumption† is still prominent in the marketplaces, it is emerging that everything is becoming collaborative. The world has in recent times has experienced immense renting and swapping of clothes, homes, and cars through technologies and peer communities such as Airnb, Zipcar, and RentCycle (Walljasper, 2010, p. 57). Collaborative consumption is a theory in itself that holds that people can buy something without necessarily owning it. The view of not owning something after buying it notwithstanding, a person buying it should take responsibility for them, be it clothes, electric, or car. The era of collaborative consumption requires dramatic re-evaluation in respect to both customer-supplier relationship and how we look at the community. This dramatic re-evaluation has to entail the understanding of the resurgence of community, the values in the community, and how members of the community connect to one another. The same re-evaluation should be applied to the customer- supplier relationship. As has been noted, consumers and suppliers in this model calls for more responsibilities; as such, it is critical to re-evaluate the accountability and the responsibility aspects in the model (Holt, 2005, p. 6). Collaborative consumption has been touted as one of the greatest revolutions of our time and may be as significant as the industrial revolution. It has been argued

Documentation for Web Application Project Outline

Documentation for Web Application Project - Outline Example 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Server - This is where the application will be installed (basically where the application files will be stores). In other words, this is the machine where all the data processing will be done. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Client - The client  represents the computer being used by the website visitor to access the information stored in the server. The website visitor will use browser software to access the website. The design process involves structuring the application together with its functionalities before developing the application. This planning helps in time saving and ensuring that the overall goal of the application in put in picture before one begins the development work. The design process will majorly depend on the kind of application being developed. As for the case of Plant and Machinery website application, the below process has been used. This part of the design focuses on the outlook of the website so that its usability is favorable to the website visitors. Here the designer must make sure that the focus is on the visitor because they never concentrate on how complex the application is but on how easy it is to

Asperger's Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Asperger's - Essay Example There are three main areas where individuals with Asperger’s Syndrome experience difficulties. These include social interaction, social communication and social imagination. These three areas are usually referred as the impairment triads. Individuals with Asperger’s syndrome experience fewer issues with speaking and their intelligence level ranges from average to above average. In general they do not encounter the associated learning disabilities that are often evident amongst individuals with autism but they may experience particular learning issues such as dyspraxia, dyslexia, epilepsy or ADHD. Though it’s a lifetime problem but its symptoms may improve with the passage of time and growing age as the adults with Asperger’s syndrome may learn to comprehend their personal weaknesses and strengths and in turn may enhance their social ability. Moreover, with proper encouragement and support, individuals with Asperger’s syndrome can be enabled to lead an independent complete life (Frith, 1991). According ADDM findings, the prevalence of ASD is more amongst non-Hispanic whites as compared to other ethnicities but with the passage of time the disparity amongst the Hispanics and non-Hispanics has declined significantly with time (Pal, 2013). A huge research body documents that racial and ethnic disparities exist in the diagnosis and intervention plan of ASDs and this may lead to false results depicting in the prevalence of Asperger’s syndrome and other ASDs more in one ethnicity than others. However, the main reason that may be attributed to the increased incidence of Asperger’s syndrome amongst non-Hispanic whites is the institutional factors like clinician prejudices, accessibility of healthcare, symptoms interpretation by families and clinicians as well as the appliance of logical algorithms by clinicians for the detection of ASD. Exploring the causes of Asperger’s Syndrome is still

The War Of 480 479 Bc History Essay

The War Of 480 479 Bc History Essay The invasion of 480-479 BC was a revenge attack on the Greeks; the reason was that the Persians having attempted severally to invade Greece and failed in their attempts. Emperor Darius is known to have set out his army to Athens to punish them for their revolt. Darius was a proud king, his pride in his big empire and the fact that he had a big army, made the Persians confident in their armys resources and their strength. This gave the Persian army the confidence that they would take over Athens. It is important to understand the reasons for the Persians insistent invasion of the Greeks and the vigilant campaign to take over Athens. When Athens encouraged these cities to rebel against Persian rule, emperor Darius set out a campaign not only to increase his empire but also to punish the rebelling cities. His first invasion and war was fought at marathon, this is the invasion of 490 BC, and this was the deciding war that lead to the invasion of 480-479 BC. It is the disposed leader Hippias who joined Dariuss army in this invasion. It is clear that they set out to invade with vengeance in their hearts, their sheer numbers and massive forces gave them a clear victory over Athens. They attacked Eriteria and won and on they moved to Athens. The humiliation of the Persians and Darius in the invasion of 490BC was the deciding factor in the invasion of 480-479 BC. Importantly what really fuelled Darius anger and drive to invade Greece in the invasion of 480-479BC was the defeat they encountered at marathon in 490BC. The Persians had a massive army and materials during this invasion, and their success was assured. Darius felt humiliated because despite their assured victory, they still lost to the Greeks. Of interest is the fact that Greeks had sort the help of the Spartans, unfortunately they could not engage in war as they were celebrating a religious feast. The Athenians went to war with the Persians manned two to one. They were simple infantry men who were against a well equipped Persian army. Looking at the history of the invasion of Greece by Persian, it is easy to understand why the Persians were defeated at every invasion. Their confidence in their numbers and might blinded them to the fact that with out strategy they would easily loose a war to a smaller and less equipped army. The loss at marathon was a humiliation to the Persians. It was the poor decision to break up, with the larger army attacking from the sea, and a smaller force at marathon that lead to their defeat. While they set out to attack from the sea, the Greeks seized the opportunity and attacked the remaining forces. They fought and won this group, then they drove them away towards the sea, as the second Persian unit arrived by sea, they found the retreating forces with the Greeks this time ready and waiting at the banks of the sea. Evidently strategy in war was a key factor in the victory over the Persians. It is important to remember that the period covered by these wars was the age in which these two great empires were expanding. The Persian Empire and the Greek empire were constantly in competition for cities to concur. After the loss of 490 BC it took another 10 years before the Persians could attack in 480-479 BC, with the death of Darius it took time for his son to gather forces and attack Athens. It is this time the Greeks got ready for battle, they had time to prepare, as they were well aware of the fact that the two empires were constantly colliding over territory. During this period the Greeks put up a naval defense force at Aegean. The Persian invasion of 480 BC under Xerxes began, with a huge army of hundreds of thousands. Xerxes was carrying out his fathers plan of taking over Greece. The conquest of Greece was seen as very important in the establishment of the empire. A boost to their morale, as it was before was their massive army. Xerxes was defeated because in as much as he had a great army, he was not prepared in the strategies of war. Xerxes was blinded by the desire to fulfill his fathers dying wishes that he forgot to prepare his army fro the battle ahead. Xerxes ambition in concurring Athens and making the Greek empire part of the Persian Empire blinded him to the fact that the Greeks may have been preparing themselves for another attack. Xerxes failed to prepare his army for this invasion since, it was a well known fact that the Persian army was used to battle on the plains of Asia. They were not physically prepared to battle in the Greek environment. This is a decisive factor in battle as the condition of the soldiers is paramount in the winning of a battle. Another major reason that Xerxes lost to the Greeks was that his army, in as much as it was massive in sheer numbers they lacked equipment as compared to the Greeks. The 10 year break during which the Persians did not attack, all the time the Greeks needed to train, arm and equip themselves fro war. The failure of Xerxes to realize that fact was an error on his part. It was common knowledge that the two empires were in constant conflict over their boundaries, with each trying to defend its concurred cities. Therefore Xerxes should have been amply prepared to have a complete take over of Athens. He should have strategised more in considering the fact that Athens was not a small city, it was the seat of the Greek empire, an empire that had a large territory and had concurred the east. The Persian army apart from having adapted to the Asian plains, they were defeated because; they were not able to properly scout. A reason fro this is the fact that on their way into Greece they decided to make a stand at Thermopylae, this was a mountain pass. This was a poor decision because they were used to waging war on vast battle fields not narrow path ways. They war strategy and training was on the open ground. The other fact was that they had deployed a huge army; this army was using the mountain pass into Greece. This was a huge error because it restricted their movement in the ground. The Persian army had invested heavily in numbers and not equipment. The moment they got into this pass, and the fact that they were ill equipped gave the Greeks an advantage. The ten year period between the invasion of 490 BC and 480 BC, apart from giving the Greeks time to prepare, it also assisted them in building a good relation with the Spartans. This is evident due to the fact that the moment the Persians attacked the Spartans were there alongside the Greeks fighting them. The naval force that the Greeks had built at Aegean helped defend Athens from the sea. The Spartans just like the Greeks were familiar with the Greek territory and landscape. It is for this reason that they were able to beat a large Persian army at the mountain pass at Thermopylae. Xerxes on the other hand should not have waited for too long to wage war on Athens. He should have immediately followed up on his father plans of attack soon after the first defeat. It is the pride of the Persian that made him loose the invasions. They gave the Athenians time to adequately prepare themselves and fortify their cities. I believe if they had followed up a repeat attack immediately after the loss at marathon they would have defeated Athens. The Persians pride in his army also resulted in his defeat, this pride blinded him to the fact that though they seemed superior in size to the Greeks. The Greeks on the other hand was also a formidable force. The Greeks were also a people that had waged war on communities both large and small and had conquered for themselves large areas. They were an innovative people that leant from their experiences and travels. It goes without saying that the Greeks learnt the first few times, each time the Persians invaded and lost the Greeks were left preparing themselves for the next attack. They prepared they ground troops and fortified their beaches; they even built a naval base to defend their beaches. The Persians overlooked the fact that the Greeks were a formidable force that was not to be reckoned with. What the Greeks lacked in numbers they made do in preparation and equipment. For the many reasons that are given for the defeat of the Persians in the invasion of 480 BC, the most convincing fact is the armys preparation in war. The Persian may have had a huge army, but the Greeks had a well armored army, after the attack at marathon they went a head and prepared themselves even creating a naval force, they even sort the assistant of the Spartans. The Persians did not have a clear war strategy, it seemed they were driven by the blind rage that emperor Darius had created and natured. They did not seem to have a clear strategy apart from attack and conquer and acquire Greece for their empire. The Greeks took advantage of this to their success; they knew when to break franks and when to attack. The Persians would have won the battle of 480 BC had they not used the mountain pass in their sheer numbers blocking them in, concentrating them in a small area, that left them venerable. If they had used a scout they would have marked out the territory to their advantage.

The Right to Bear Arms Essay -- argumentative, persuasive, gun control

Currently, The United States of America is at war against 27 words that were written by James Madison in 1789. The Bill of Rights is known as the first 10 amendments to The Constitution of the United States. The Bill of Rights states the rights of its citizens. The Second Amendment states: â€Å"A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed†(Madison). Many people have argued that â€Å"to keep and bear arms† is not very obvious. James Madison is not alive to clear up this misunderstanding that, for hundreds of years, has caused controversies. Some experts argue that, gun ownership laws should be relaxed because this country cannot guarantee the safety of its citizens. Others say that gun ownership laws should not be relaxed because it would increase the number of weapons and increase the availability of weapons for criminals. And thus, the debate over the right to bear arm s continues, again. Gun ownership is a hot topic in this country. The United States has almost always been a country know for its’ lenient gun laws. â€Å"Gun Ownership is a civil liberty protected by the Second Amendment of The Constitution† (Roth 1). The Constitution says that we can â€Å"bear arms†, which in turn, makes it very complicated to make a simple change/addition of words. States can choose to make restrictions to state laws as long as it follows the amendments and the U.S. Constitution. For example, states can take different paths when it comes to the death penalty as long as it is constitutional. â€Å"Illinois is one of only two states—the other is Wisconsin—that does not allow some sort of concealed carry by its’ residents† (Brownfield). 48 other states allow concealed we... ...eryone on the ‘lookout’, it is hard to just live your life. â€Å"None of these bills actually prevent violence. Rather, they help deteriorate the quality of life in our communities† (Roth 1). Guns are ruining our communities by showing the people that it is acceptable to take action if you are frightened. Sometimes, taking action can be the worst possible solution to a crisis. If a person takes action, it shows that you are brave, but, it also shows the criminal that you are actually a threat to them. This would raise the death toll significantly. As you now know, gun ownership is a very arguable topic. Countless people believe that guns will help citizens protect themselves when targeted for a crime, whereas, a large handful of citizens say that guns â€Å"help deteriorate the quality of life in our communities† (Roth 1). What if all the guns in the world just vanished?

St. Augustine Confessions

St. Augustine’s Confessions St. Augustine lived during a period in which the Roman Empire was in deep decline and Christianity was taking root as the official religion. It was a time of great political stress and widespread religious concern. The Confessions reveals much about his formative years, when he strove to overcome his sensual desires, find faith, and understand religious and philosophical doctrines. Augustine treats this autobiography as much more than an opportunity to narrate his life, however, and there is hardly an event mentioned in his autobiography that does not have an accompanying religious or philosophical clarification. St. Augustine’s confessions also provide one with a critical aspect of the Christian Bible. Augustine’s confessions form a work that corresponds closely to its content and achieves what it set out to achieve, which is redemption from sins for Augustine and a revelation for the readers. His writing is basically an idea of the return of creation to God; its aim is to inspire others to actively seek this return and to believe in the creation of God. The relationship St. Augustine has with love and God is undeniably irrevocable due to the fact that he cannot distinguish love and God with out one another. Augustine often experiences darkness, blindness, and confusion while attempting to find truth in God, but he knows that when he eventually finds him his confused heart will be redeemed. Augustine started out in childhood with a state of confusion because he had to live in two different worlds. These two worlds consisted of that of his mother’s (Monica) religious faith and teachings, and the rest of the outside world. The two worlds confused Augustine as a child because his mother praised Christ and Christianity and about the almighty God who helps humans to go to heaven. In the outside world, it was completely nonreligious. The talk was about striving to achieve. In Carthage, while successfully pursuing his studies, he abandoned his Christian moral teachings of his early years and took in a mistress, with whom he lived with for 10 years. Augustine’s relation to his mistress focuses primarily on the problem of restless love, while showing that Augustine had the desire to love and wanted to be loved. Many young men stayed with a woman until the time came to marry them back then. This is what Augustine performed. He states that, â€Å"In those days I lived with a oman, not my lawful wedded wife but a mistress whom I had chosen for no special reason but that my restless passions had alighted on her. But she was the only one and I was faithful to her† (Confessions, IV). This is just one of the many aspects in his life that he considered sinful. Later in his writings, when Augustine talks about his conversation to Neo-Platonism (all actions a re considered good or evil) and then Christianity that he classifies his previous behavior as sinful and regrets many of his previous actions. By the time he converted, he viewed every act in which he put himself ahead of God as sinful. One sin that he mourns greatly and faults himself for is allowing him to be sexually free and having various partners. Although Augustine was regretful for his sin, he also mentions that it was the hardest sin to give up when he was trying to determine if he wanted to convert to Christianity completely. Augustine also attempts to provide another explanation for his previous actions by speculating that his actions were a result of his love for God being somehow misleading; â€Å"To him I was led by thee without my knowledge, that by him I might be led to thee in full knowledge† (Confessions, XIII). One of the biggest struggles that Augustine faced was his belief in God and how God exists. His concern was how we can seek God without really knowing what he is or what we’re exactly looking for. â€Å"Within me I had a dearth of that inner food which thyself, my God—although that dearth caused me no hunger† (Confessions, I). He constantly questions the existence of God and his belief in Him. Asking God to â€Å"come into me†, Augustine again questions what that phrase could really mean when expressed to God. Later on in the writing, Augustine came across a book, in which he referred to as â€Å"books of eloquence† (Confessions, IV), called Hortensius by Cicero. He admired this book very much and its philosophical ways which he proclaims it â€Å"changed my whole attitude and turned my prayers toward thee, O Lord, and gave me new hope and new desires† (Confessions, IV). The reading caused him to reach toward God, even though he had only learned of God seriously through Monica, his mother whom was of Christian faith. It helped him to develop a different outlook on God and take life more seriously. Furthermore, the death of Augustine’s friend made him realize that all love should be rooted in God. His friend became very ill with a fever and eventually passed away. Augustine felt extreme grief and sorrow for his friend’s death. He believes that the main cause of his misery lies in the fact that he loves his friend with the type of love that should have been reserved for God alone. Therefore, he felt that all human love is going to fade unless this love is grounded in the eternal God who never changes and will always remain. While love exists between two souls with whom we want to be with, this type of love will always have a basis from God. Throughout the Confessions, love and wisdom, his desire to love and be loved, are all driving forces for Augustine’s desire to find peace in God. Augustine often experiences darkness, blindness, and confusion while attempting to find peace in God and peace within himself, but he knows that when he eventually finds him his restless heart will be saved. Augustine felt that love might help him have a solid purpose in life and would guide him through his time of conversion. Love is a natural feeling for human race and becomes a necessity for all people. For Augustine, the first love has to be for the love of God. It must come before all others. He states that â€Å"the thought of you stirs him so deeply that he cannot be content unless he praises you, because you made us for yourself and our hearts find no peace until they rest in you† (Confessions, I). Holding God as love’s priority, it helped Augustine to shape his life, his mind and his beliefs. He never realized what a big difference it makes in one’s life when it is opened up to love and to love Christ. For Augustine, the answer to his questions and confusion lies in God’s grace. These answers are to the most difficult questions on life and faith. Throughout his writing, there was no time where he had been without love, but he had loved in pieces, hidden, and conflicting ways. He had loved his mother, Monica, from the beginning. He had also loved the name and image of Christ, but was in state of confusion many times therefore doubting his faith and beliefs. Through the Confessions, Augustine leaves himself and his past to praising God and loving him because he felt guilty with himself and his importance of God in his life. He found a place in God that he never imagined could happen. His guilty mind and heart finally found rest in God. Love also played a significant role during his conversion. It helped guide him towards God and Christ in a positive way that influenced the rest of his life. All these various themes of love helped and guided Augustine through his conversion. This formation was the discovery of a new self and the discovery of the new world he sees now through his conversion. The conversion taught him truth and to believe in God. His desire to understand wisdom, which was through the readings by Cicero, brought about a new view for Christ. Though he converted, Augustine’s full connection with the love of Christ was still yet incomplete for him. His mind was not satisfied with any one direction. The most critical and influential form of love that Augustine had was love for God and the love for Christ. It was almost as if he was exposed to a new realm and he opened up his life up to God more and more each day by praising him, telling God how much he loves him now. Augustine states, â€Å"then, O Lord, you laid your most gentle, most merciful finger on my heart and set my thoughts in order, for I began to realize that I believed countless things which I had never seen or which I had taken place when I was not there to see† (Confessions, VI). The Confessions tells a story in the form of a long conversion with God. Through this conversion to Catholic Christianity, Augustine encounters many aspects of love. These forms of love guide him towards an ultimate relationship with God. His restless heart finally finds peace and rest in God after the conversion. Augustine finds many ways in which he can find peace in God. He is genuinely sorry for having turned away from God, the one source of peace and happiness. Augustine is extremely thankful for having been given the opportunity to live with God. Augustine uses love as his gate to God’s grace. All in all, the Confessions can be read as Augustine’s way of redemption from his sins and his revelation of love to God and Christ. Augustine’s transition from a sinner to a faithful Christian was also evidence to God’s greatness. Even though Augustine committed unacceptable sins, it was a good thing for him in that he found the strength to believe and love God. This is because of what he has obtained from analyzing texts, such as Cicero’s writings, and Christian philosophy and the fact that he can truly understand the root causes of his sins that he committed instead of simply implying them based on what a book says.

3.9 Budgeting Essays - Economy, Finance, Money, Free Essays

3.9 Budgeting Essays - Economy, Finance, Money, Free Essays 3.9 Budgeting What is a budget? A forward financial plan that covers all the aspects of a business costs and revenues (forecast) Why prepare a budget? To exercise control within a business It can provide direction and coordination To ensure that no department has an overspend Sets targets that performance can be judged against, which can motivate workers To delegate spending power to individuals or departments Budgetary Control The process by which financial control is exercise within an organization Budgets for revenue and expenditure are prepared in advance and compared with an actual performance to establish any variances Managers are held responsible for any adverse variances and will need to take action TYPES OF BUDGET Zero Budgeting Budgeted costs and revenues are set to zero Budget is based on new proposals for costs and sales Time consuming, but starting from scratch can ensure that funds are allocated the right way Historical Budgeting Use last years figures and add a little for inflation It is much quicker and simple but may not focus on problem areas of the business It does not encourage efficiency BUDGET ALLOCATION The level of expenditure will depend on the following factors: The amount available Inflation External factors This is a difficult task for certain businesses, as prices fluctuate and sales figures are unpredictable (e.g. restaurants, agriculture, and clothing company) VARIANCES - The measure of the anticipated performance (the budget) against what actually happened. The variance is the difference between the two. Favorable (positive) Variance Variance higher than expected Costs lower than expected Revenue higher than expected Budget is higher than actual Adverse (negative) Variance Variance lower than expected Costs higher than expected Revenue lower than expected Budget is lower than actual ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Budgets are an efficient way to control and monitor costs Budgets are based on assumptions and are not exact Can be used as a motivational tool External factors, e.g. the economy, make it almost impossible to set accurate budgets, so could be classed as time wasting Can be used to set target and judge performance Could be demoralizing if set incorrectly Managers take short-term decision in order to meet budgetary requirements. COST AND PROFIT CENTERS COST CENTER - a section of a business, such as a department, to which all costs can be allocated or charged Examples: Manufacturing Products Factories Departments Stages in production Hotel The restaurant The reception Conference station Bar *Different businesses will use different cost centers that are appropriate to their own needs. PROFIT CENTER - a section of a business to which both costs and revenues can be allocated Examples: Each branch of a chain of shops Each department or department store In a multi-product firm, each product in the overall portfolio of the business Why do businesses divide operations into cost and profit centers? Managers and staff will have targets to work towards - if reasonable and achievable - positive impact on motivation Targets can be used to compare with actual performance and help identify those areas performing well and those not so well The individual performances of divisions and their managers can be assessed and compared Work can be monitored and decision made about the future However, Managers and workers may consider their part of the business to be more important than the whole organization Some costs - indirect costs - can be impossible to allocate to cost and profit centers accurately (arbitrary overhead allocation) Reasons for the good or bad performance of one particular profit center may be due to external factors not under its control

Utilitarianism and Animal Testing Essay

Utilitarianism and Animal Testing Essay A Tragedy of Animal Testing Essay A Tragedy of Animal Testing Essay Animal testing has been the most controversial and frequently debated topics around the globe. It is also known as animal experimentation, which is usually done to determine toxicity, effectiveness, side effects, and dosage of drugs intended to be used for human treatment. There are two opinions on this question – for and against one. However, the amount of people, who are against of animal testing is larger, and animal advocates beat an alarm for the scopes of animal use in testing. This research paper presents arguments against animal testing and provides evidence that there are alternative methods of tests. In addition, the survey of 22 respondents was conducted in order to support the viewpoint. Despite the fact that a lot of steps are taken in order to decrease the number of dying animals, there should be more efforts made towards total refusal of animal use in testing. Painful Human Experiments on Animals Every year, millions of lives, â€Å"wild world† are taken by painful human experiments. Experimental animals are burned, scalded, poisoned, and staved, subjected to electrical discharges and habituated to drugs. While carrying out a study, scientists induce in animals various diseases such as syphilis, diabetes, arthritis, stomach ulcers, cancer, and AIDS. In experiments for the military purposes, animals are poisoned by gas, cyanide, shot with plastic bullets, and shells. This practice is called vivisection (experiments on living animals: from the Latin words vivus, â€Å"lively,† and section, â€Å"dissecting.† It is originated in the middle of the XVII century, and today represents one of the black spots on the conscience of mankind since cruel experiments on animals continue to be produced on an industrial scale (Fano, 1997). The concept of animal testing remains controversial among different researchers. Some argue that it is immoral to use animals such as rats, mice, frogs, and other millions of animals for such experiments. In fact, animal experiment attracts sharp and diverse reactions between the opponents and proponents. More so, the notable differences are between animal welfare champions and scientists. According to the European Union data, the majority of animals are killed in medical research (65%). Fundamental researches (including military, space ones, etc.) occupy 26%, toxicity tests (cosmetics, new industrial compounds) 8%, the sphere of education 1 %. 85% of animal experiments conducted over the past 100 years, are carried in the period from fall 1950; however, the average life expectancy for this period has not changed much, but the amount and danger of chronic diseases continues to grow (Fano, 1997). The recent scandal with the largest German medical concern Bayer manufacturer of pharmaceuticals, has once again proved that the difference occurring in the human and animal processes makes testing drugs on animals meaningless (Combes et al., 2003). For example, thalidomide was tested successfully on animals and introduced into the drug market in 1956 and later turned out to be ineffective and dangerous. Thalidomide was widely used by expectant women to counter nausea, a vom iting sickness associated with pregnancy (Badge, 2003). In fact, the long term effect of thalidomide was reported as very dangerous, and it was associated with numerous birth defects in children. Though it was banned in 1961, roughly 15,000 victims were affected, and others died (Badge, 2003). Another typical example of medication that proved successful in animals but failed in human beings was the use of Vioxx as an anti-arthritis drug. This drug was widely tested on animals and humans and later approved by over 70 regulatory agencies across the world. It was later discovered that Vioxx drug caused the heart attack, which led to its withdrawal from the market in 2004. Statistical analysis indicates that out of 80 million cases of heart attack, the drug caused between 88,000 and 139,000 cases with roughly 35 percent of these cases leading to death (Hofer et. al., 2004). From this analogy, it can be concluded that only a few animals are used in testing drugs that are consumed by billions of patients. As a result, the process may not reveal certain side effects that may affect hundreds or thousands of consumers (Watson, 2009). Modern medicine has up to 150 drugs that have been tested on animals and proved to be unsuitable for human beings. Analysis of the achievements of modern medicine has shown that progress is related to clinical observations of patients and not to experiments on animals. Such results showed clinical trials of hepatitis, rheumatism, fever, ulcerative colitis, thyroid disease, and other. The so-called â€Å"war against cancer,† which has begun in 1971, still has no visible success, although the cost experiment with animals exceeded $ 1 billion per year in the U.S. What is more, all the conducted experiments on AIDS issue have been unsuccessful as well (Fano, 1997). Medication requires huge financial costs, which could be successfully spend on persuading people to adopt healthy lifestyles. Before the pharmacy counter is turned on medicines undergo numerous tests on animals within 15-20 years. At this stage of early clinical trials, 90 % of the products are rejected (Combes et al., 2003). Today, a number of centers stand for the development of alternatives to animal experiments. Embryo eggs, bacteria, physicochemical model of cell culture as well as computer model can be used as an alternative for animals in clinical trials. These methods are cheaper, more effective, rapid, and allow the identification of the toxicity of the test drugs on a deeper level –cellular and subcellular (Fano, 1997). In addition, animals are tested not only for medical purposes cosmetics, construction materials, and packaging, the novel compounds produced by industry are also the spheres where vivisection is widely used. Animals breathe vapors from the substance, which concentration is so high that most of them die of poisoning. The most widespread industrial Draize test for cosmetics has the following procedure: the tested product is applied to the rabbit cornea, than the examiner waits until the damage to the cornea occurs. Immobilized rabbit cannot rub the eye, corroded by coated material (Watson, 2009). The animal is released from torment only after opacification and the destruction of the eye. At the end of the experiment, all rabbits are killed in order to determine the effect of toxic substances inside. Another kind of this test is skin irritation: immobilized animal is shaved and the product is applied to damaged skin. Skin damage is performed by tightly clutching the tape to the body of the animal and tearing it sharply. This procedure is repeated several times till several layers of the skin are torn. As it can be seen, these tests are inhuman and animals are subjected to cruel abuse (Combes et. al., 2003). Experimental animals are also used during the education process. Although most medical school graduates will never work with animals, students are forced to carry painful trials on animals (Watson, 2009). Experiments on frogs do not cause so strong perturbations in the society as experiments on dogs or cats do. Many people judge the animal pain in its attempts to escape or scream, but rodents and birds, for example, may fade when they hurt, frogs cry when they feel threatened. One can only imagine what feels an amphibian, which is pinned to a piece of rubber and cut the skin on the breast in order to see how the heart beats. However, some arguments have also been in support of animal experiments. For example, the diabetes disease became treatable after the insulin hormone elimination from pancreas of cows and pigs (Watson, 2009). Researchers must always carry out experiments; however, it will be vital to look for alternative methods that will help reduce the immense use of animals. The reason is that animals have a wider range of similarities in terms of physiological, organ, and tissue system to humans. The similarity between animals and humans outweigh the differences (Fowler Miller, 2008). Such scientists further argue that certain nature of studies work better and faster in animals than in humans. For instance, genetic and reproductive experiments is less time consuming in animals such as rats, which mature and reproduce faster than humans (Parel, Roberts, Khan 2007). To respond to the ethical issues surrounding animal testing, proponents of the experiment argue that researchers give maximum care to the animals and handle them in a friendly manner. Although they are introduced to the new environment, they are always handled with special care. In response to death and injury of animals during research, proponents argue that it is better to use animals than humans. They declare that killing a human being is considered more unethical than killing animals (Watson, 2009). Animals for experiments come from zoos, specialized nurseries or are bred in special conditions. There are companies engaged in breeding of rodents. There are those who grow about a half million of species per year while the animals are grown under conditions that are not in contact with any viruses. Other companies are suppliers of birds infected with certain diseases: obese guinea pigs, which have no immune system, primates suffering from hemophilia, etc. Many primates are caught in Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, China, South America, and Africa (Watson, 2009). In some cases, only one or two of the ten monkeys caught during transport to the laboratory survive. Many species are now threatened with extinction because of this practice. From 1954 to 1960, more than half a million of primates from around the world paid their freedom and their lives for their contribution to testing vaccines against polio. The U.S. is the largest supplier of primates: 13 to 17,000 species per year (Fano, 1997). One of the most solid explanations of animal testing cannot be considered as the valid test. The thing is that there are huge physiological differences between humans and any animal, including monkeys, which are considered as human ancestors. From a medical standpoint, it is absolutely impossible to draw a parallel between man and any animal in question of influence of the drug or its components on the body in general or on a specific individual (Combes et al., 2003). Human beings are different from other animals; drugs being safe for human are extremely dangerous for certain experimental animals and vice versa (Parel, Roberts, Khan, 2007). Moreover, even among the experimental animals, there is no one and concise effect what harms mice or guinea pigs has no effect on cats or monkeys. Here are just a few examples of this â€Å"incompatibility.† Strychnine, a poisonous substance for humans, is quietly tolerated by guinea pigs and monkeys in large doses, and for chickens in a tenfold increase of the dose. Atropine can kill a human even at 1 mg amount while its effect on the horses, donkeys, and monkeys is not harmful; pigeons, rats, and guinea pigs did not even react to the presence of this substance in the body. One or two hundred grams of scopolamine do no harm a dog or cat, but even half a gram of this substance can cause death in humans. Opium has no effect on chickens and pigeons, and morphine is dangerous for them only in very large quantities, which cannot be said about cats. However, both these substances are widely used in medicine (Fano, 1997). A human being can go blind from methyl alcohol, and it will not cause any harm to â€Å"experimental† animals. Some human painkillers cause profuse salivation incredibly when taken by a cat, and it gives occasion to look her fury. The difference between organisms is so great that all experiments performed with different animals can fundamentally contradict each other, and be absolutely not applicable to humans (Fano, 1997). The close look to modern medicines shows that many vital medicines would never have gotten a right to exist if they were tested on animal. For example, the most widespread antibiotic substance – penicillin would not ever exist if Alexander Fleming had not given it to his patient, despite the fact that this substance had shown no positive results when tested on animals (Combes, 2003). However, the situation is not as horrible as it seems to be. There are lots of organizations dealing with animal testing problem. Many countries created the set of laws regulation animal use in the products testing. In 1985, the Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS) introduced the Code of Ethics containing recommendations for the international biomedical research using animals. In the European Union, in 1986, the Council of Europe adopted the European Convention for the Protection of Animals used for Experimental and other Scientific Purposes and the Council Directive of the European Economic Community for the protection of animals in experiments. They reflect all the main provisions of the Code of Ethics CIOMS. In Italy, in 1993, a law was passed, according to which schools were obliged to provide biomedical profile opportunity for the individual willing to study alternative programs, excluding animal experiments. This law was adopted under pressure fro m the public; in particular, social student organization EuroNICHE actively opposed the use of painful experiments on animals in the learning process and students’ right to receive education without biomedical animal abuse that was supported by numerous animal protection societies. In the United Kingdom, Law on Protection of experimental animals was introduced in 1986. The law provides the implementation of state control over experiments on animals, which is carried by Committee procedures on animals under the Ministry of the Interior. The Committee is formed of scientists, who have extensive experience working with animals, animal advocates and representatives. In the U.S.A., Protection Act for experimental animals was adopted in 1985. The law provides the establishment of ethics committees at each institution that uses animals. Ethical committees hold public control of experiments on animals. They are composed of a veterinarian and independent members. Ethics committees mon itor compliance with the provisions of the law, for example, animal welfare, the use of painkillers, and antistress drugs (Fano, 1997). The experiments on animals in the developed countries adhere to the â€Å"Three R†: replacement, reduction, and refinement. It was first proposed in 1959. After improving, it has become increasingly accepted in Europe and America, its position is the basis for laws to protect experimental animals. The concept involves the use of tissue culture cells, the models of isolated organs (e.g., an eyeball), sections of tissues (skin, cornea, kidneys, etc.), and complex biochemical models (e.g., layered model of the cornea, in which skin and eyes, special microporous substrates culture corneal cells as well as human and animal skin are used, they imitated the epidermis and deeper layers) instead of laboratory animals (Watson, 2009). Application of â€Å"three R† rule resulted in revision for the system of education in schools and veterinary biomedical profile in Europe and the United States. The learning process should be built so that animals are used only if necessary. The tra ining process should be provided with animal testing alternatives: working with cadaveric material and dummies, videos and computer models, special training programs. Most of the necessary practical training with animals should be carried out as a demonstration, and only when the training requires obtaining special skills. As it can be seen, despite the fact that all these laws and acts were adopted relatively long time ago, the amount of animals killed due to the cosmetic, education, medical, and chemical need did not significantly decreased. Positive shift in experimental animals’ protection became possible because of social activity of animal advocates. People refused to buy such products and protested. The question of animal testing was even raised in cinematography, for example, there is a famous movie Legally Blonde 2: Red, White Blonde (2003) directed by Charles Herman-Wurmfeld with Reese Witherspoon as the star part. The main topic of this film is the tests of the cosmetics primarily on dogs. The story of the little dog named Bruiser attracted attention to the problem and made the scopes of the problem being widely discussed. Nowadays, the majority of people do know that animal testing is unethical and illegal. However, they keep buying these products despite considering it as unacceptable. In support of this viewpoint, the survey was conducted. There were five questions: Did you know that the products like household chemicals, medicines, and cosmetics are tested on animals? Buying washing powder or cosmetics, do you think of murdered animals that are involved in testing of these products? We live in the 21st century with highly developed technology and various computer measures used in science. How do you think, is animal testing still a relevant measure to test products? What is your attitude to animal testing? In order to make a conclusion, should household chemicals and cosmetics be tested on animals? Every question has multiple choice of answers, including â€Å"I don’t care† to every question. 22 respondents took part in the survey. 90. 91% (20 of 22) confessed that they knew about animal testing phenomenon, and only 2 said that they doubted that animal testing were true. The answers on the second question showed different attitudes: 9.09% knew about the cruel tests, but still bought the considered products, 22.73% tried not to buy them but still did, 27.27% did not buy such products at all, the same amount was indifferent to the conducted tests, and, finally, 13.64% did not know about tests. The third question showed different results as well. 40.91% of participants said that animal testing was still relevant way of testing, 77.7% of respondents believed that computer could not precisely predict the reaction since it was only a machine, and the rest suggested that animal testing was cheaper and easier. 54.55% of respondents considered vivisection non-relevant, and the rest were indifferent. The attitudes to animal tests were mostly negative – 63.64% considered it to be unethical due to various reasons; 27.28% had a positive opinion on vivisection, and 9.09% were indifferent. Finally, the fifth question 54.55% of respondents definitely were against vivisection, 22.73% were for animal testing, 18.18% found it hard to give a clear answer on that question, and 4.55% were indifferent. Obviously, this survey is too brief to show some evident results, but still, the majority of people are against animal testing. The good thing is that that the variant â€Å"I don’t care† picked only 1 respondent. The rest 21 participants had a deal with this problem, and this is hopeful. Perhaps, if the survey was major, with a larger amount of respondents and survey questions, the result would be more clear and obvious. In order to make a conclusion, animal testing is known as the use of animals in experiments and has caused controversies among researchers and common people. Some argue that it is moral while others contend that it is unethical. In fact, the debate about the use of animals in such experiments raises controversies that are yet to be resolved. Even though the proponents think that animals are better to use than humans, it will be significant to look for other alternative ways of testing human medication that does not impede the rights of animals (Hofer et al. 2004). The reason is that animals the same as humans have the right to live. Killing animals because of experiments remains immoral; hence it is vital to have better ways of determining the effectiveness of any kind of human medications. This will lessen the injuries and subsequent death rates of animals. Therefore, the points of the opponents in this argument are stronger than the supporters’ reasons. That is why this crue l trend should be banned as it can harm humans while abusing animals in the process. In my opinion, there is no argument to support animal testing. This means that it is morally incorrect because these innocent animals lose their freedom and life being placed in cages in laboratories. They are still restricted in cages after testing so that scientists can observe their reactions and responses to the test. Additionally, many end up dying because of the cruel and painful tests. The thing is that that the dosage of drugs that are administered are often increased. Utilitarian Approach and Failure of Animal Testing Several researchers, including Gruen (2011), have argued that ethics is not an appropriate system that is entirely noble in theory but not good in practice. Deontological approaches were identified, including rights approaches to ethics, as not practical in the real world scenario. Utilitarianism does not commence with rules but with goals, and therefore, it has significant normative specificity. This is because actions are proscribed or prescribed on the degree to which they further define goals. According to Mitchell (2010), utilitarianism is not linked to complexities required in making deontological moral theories, including rights theory, which is applicable in real moral scenarios. Traditional utilitarian approach considers a certain action as a right if it produces as much or more of an increase in happiness of all affected by it. These views about the nature of rights theory have profound effects on the rights of animals. In this regard, this paper discusses utilitarian appro ach and failure of animal testing. Utilitarianism deploys aggregation of benefits and harms in order to determine the right course of action. This might appear quite appealing because it reduces moral choices to simple arithmetic (Wolff, 2006). Nevertheless, how does an individual quantify benefits and harms, particularly in dealing with animal research? For instance, development of cardiovascular bypass integrated innumerable animal experiments, which is an enormous harm. However, it eventually resulted in success of open-heart surgery, which is an enormous benefit. The utilitarian calculation or argument might conclude that this was a justifiable use of animals. By claiming that bettering condition of animals, for example, by curing their diseases, could justify an experiment, Gruen (2011), takes an absolutist approach to animals and their rights. In addition, Gruen (2011), also acknowledges that there are variations between sentient species. Overall, humans are at extreme end of the spectrum of species yet they have a sophisticated language skills, an awareness of others, self-awareness and the ability to plan. As a result, they might have preference over other species. Just like humans, nonhuman primates might have preference over rodents. On the other hand, Mitchell (2010), has argued that animals also have rights. The life of an animal has intrinsic value to that animal, and bestows moral status to those individuals. Human beings have no mandate to exploit other animals regardless of the possible gains to human beings. Mitchell (2010), stated that the best we can do with regard to animals is not to use them for testing. Other philosophers have also fought in favor of animals on the grounds of contractarianism and reverence for life concepts. Though such concepts seem to have not received proper attention from the researchers. Human Rights, Animals Rights The debate concerning the ethics experiments involving animals, resides on the issue of moral association between nonhumans and humans (Wolff, 2006). Over the centuries, Western philosophers have viewed humans from different perspective to the rest of the animal kingdom. For instance, Aristotle believed that there was a hierarchy of animals, with human beings at the top of it. According to Aristotle, humans were at the top due to ability to reason and rational thinking. Even within humans, there is hierarchy, with men being considered more rational than women. Descartes, on the other hand, considered nonhumans to be insentient machines. As a result, they could not feel pain. Because of this reason, they could be exploited ruthlessly. Other philosophers, such as Kant, acknowledged that animals could suffer, though they lack moral status. According to Wolff (2006), Jeremy Bentham, who lived in the 18th century, predicted that the time when the animals might acquire those rights that co uld have been withheld from them. The way we treat nonhuman creatures, especially animals, indicates a distinction we make between humans, whom we consider as individuals, and nonhumans, whom we consider as things. Though one might consider some animals as having certain special features, we consider all those features to be dependent and tradable based on the judgment that the sacrifice of the features will benefit us. According to Mitchell (2010), this trade is often permissible even when the animal interest is significant and the human interest is admittedly unimportant. The use of animals for the purposes of entertainment such as rodeos or circuses reflects such scenarios where human interest seems to be more significant than animal interest. It is known that animals are neither persons under the law nor in moral theory. They are property, which implies that they exist solely as means to human disposure. According to Mitchell (2010), they have interests, which cannot be sacrificed, even when the benefit to be gai ned by human is mere amusement at the cost of great pain to the animal. On the other hand, persons refer to precisely those beings, such as corporations, having interest, which can be traded for consequential reasons alone. An example of person is de jure person, which implies that their personhood exists solely because they result from creation of the legal system. However, every person has at least some interests, though not essentially similar interests, which are safeguarded by both law and moral theory. According to Gruen (2011), these interests are safeguarded even if trading them will cause consequences that deemed to be desirables. It is thought to believe that the theory of animal rights seeks to shift at least certain nonhuman to human side. The two reasons can support this movement. The first reason is that those supporting animal exploitation argue that nonhuman is qualitatively different from humans. As a result, animals can be classified as nonhumans (Gruen, 2011). However, animal rights proponents have argued that there is no such difference since some nonhumans will be in possession of the supposedly exclusive characteristic. It is not enough to argue that the difference of species alone is morally justified; after all, to depend on species alone as morally justified is to presume a difference that requires to be proved by individuals holding such views. Secondly, it is apparent some animals have certain characteristics that we often link to personhood. For instance, Gruen (2011), argues that empirical and theoretical considerations show that some animals possess desires, memory, intention, self-conscio usness and sense of future. Attribution of several of these mental conditions shows that it is sensibly perfect to consider certain animals as psychological individuals faring well or ill during the course of their life. Since animals have desires, and the capacity to act in pursuit of their goals, they might also be considered to have preference autonomy, which is a significant characteristic for attribution of rights. A popular misconception is that animal activists argue that animals be granted similar rights as human beings. (Wolff, 2006). In addition, the criticism itself shows a primary confusion concerning the tights theory. In several ways, the animal rights theory is concerned about the inclusion of nonhumans on the humans. This inclusion should be differentiated from the matter of the scope of any rights that animals might have once we move them from the nonhuman side to human side. However, there is one sense that considering animals as persons is extremely different from considering addition humans within that class. If we acknowledge that an individual is not a â€Å"thing†, the protection we have given that individual is at the same time significant, but also the bare minimum to differentiate that individual from being a thing. Saying that an animal is included in the category of persons says nothing concerning the scope of the tights the animals might have other than saying tha t we will safeguard the rights of that animal in order to acquire personhood status (Gruen, 2011). Certain counterarguments hinge on whether animals are moral beings. Mitchell (2010), concluded that only autonomous beings have rights. As a result, animals fail to meet the requirements specified for being full members of moral community, and therefore, they fail to qualify for rights. From the same perspective, we need to distinguish non-moral from moral beings. Moral beings exist within a web of obligations and reciprocal rights created by their own dialogue. On the contrary, non-moral beings exist outside that web. Mitchell (2010), pointed out that it is both cruel and senseless to try binding non-moral beings into the web. Despite animals having no rights, we have duties and obligations to them. Mitchell (2010), also draws a division line between wild animals and those that man has made dependent on him. Certain form of contractualism provides us with the most appropriate approach to moral theory. From the moral theory discussed below, animals will be denied moral standings. Par t of the problems experienced, when invoking the moral theory in solving ethical problems of animal experimentation, is the propensity to use address it using a single theoretical construct, be it contractualism or utilitarianism, which is a rights-based, or any other. In the place of both contractualism and utilitarianism, an approach similar to that deployed in resolving ethical dilemmas in clinical practice might be helpful. Moral Theory In order to assess claims concerning the normative indeterminacy of the rights theory, two distinct components or levels of moral theory will be discussed in this paper. Comparative normative guidance of the deontological and utilitarian approaches in relation to every component will also be explored (Mitchell, 2010). The first level or component of moral theory is what the theory preferably seeks. The second level offers a normative guidance to the personal level with regard to what they theory ideally requires. Ideal and Micro Component of Moral Theory This component of moral theory requires that we ask what the theory envisages as the appropriate state, which would be attained if the theory under consideration was accepted. For animal activists, the moral theory is a theory of abolition, and not regulation of institutional exploitation. Animal activists object to the treatment of animals exclusively as means to ends. As a result, they object to the property status of animals to be bargained away provided there is some kind of human benefit involved, which allows all their interests, such as their basic interest in physical security that is a requirement to meaningful acceptance of other interests (Mitchell, 2010). This would require complete abolition of those forms of animal exploitation, which are reliant on the status of animals. According to this component of moral theory, animal exploitation is unjust to the animals. The rights theory is considerably clear about this component of moral theory. As the rights theory condemns the institutionalized exploitation of nonhumans, it also condemns direct participation in exploitation of animals (Mitchell, 2010). If an individual proposes the abolition of human slavery due to its unjustness, that individual would seemingly conclude that ownership by a master is violative of the rights. Likewise, an individual exploiting animals by using them for experiments or eating their meat also perpetrates suffering among animals. However, a difficult moral issue remains unsolved. It is not possible to avoid participating in institutionalized exploitation of animals, because almost each aspect of our lives is some way linked to institutionalized animal exploitation. As such, animal activists and rights advocate are faced with difficult decisions, for instance, as to whether to utilize drugs tested on animals. Utilitarian theory is different from traditional animal welfare because it considers the long-term animal liberation. The long-term goal is more progressive than the conventional Welfarist approach provided every one of us agree on how to describe the competing interest. According to Wolff (2006), utilitarian theory is the same as animal welfare since it demands that we balance the interests of human beings against the interests of animals under circumstances threatening to compromise evaluation of animal interests in any event. Macro Component of Moral Theory In order to assess the claim that animal rights is unrealistic, absolutist or utopian, we must examine the macro aspects of rights theory. Finding a single instance in which the advocates of animal rights support the concept that there is any possibility of immediate action, which will lead to the immediate abolition of all institutionalized exploitation is a difficult task (Wolff, 2006). The only way that such an effort could succeed is if we were willing to rise up in violent confrontation given the large numbers of people participating in institutionalized exploitation. However, if there is sufficient numbers of people to make such scenario, the confrontation would be unnecessary, because people would be capable of effecting dramatic changes in treatment of animals via political means. According to Gruen (2011), nothing in the rights theory essentially precludes the animal advocate from pursuing judicial change or incremental legislative. However, it is hard to think that we can speak meaningfully of legal rights for animals only if they are considered property. In order to put the issue in the context of my earlier discussion of basic rights, only if animals are property, then their rights or those that are a requirement for the enjoyment of other non-basic rights can be sacrificed provided some benefit is found to exist. If we can kill animals for food, use them for experimentation, imprison animals in cages at zoos for amusement, or shoot them for fun, then saying that animals have rights is merely an abstract sense. According to Gruen (2011), basic rights are a requirement to enjoyment of non-basic rights. In addition, possession of non-basic in the absence of basic rights is useless. The opponents would respond that each movement achieves rights incrementally. For instance, Gruen (2011), cited that progress is made incrementally in social movement via continual reform. Gruen (2011), tried to compare the incremental progress made in social movement to the incremental progress made towards obliteration of exploitation of animals. This attempt failed to for the reason that no other circumstance is comparable with regard to the baseline protection afforded to nonhumans. To put the issue differently, once we have individuals who are holders of basic rights, it makes sense to talk about making incremental reforms in rights. Animal Testing and Ethics According to the opponents of animal testing, pain is an inherent evil, and any action causing pain to another creature, whether human or nonhuman, is not morally allowed. With regard to Wolff (2006), who is a utilitarian, animal activists claim that the moral question concerning animals is neither whether they can reason, nor whether they can talk. A researcher who forces rats to choose between starvation and electric shocks, in order to see if they can suffer from ulcers, does so, since he or she knows that rats have a similar nervous system as that of human. Pain is inherently an evil, whether witnessed by an adult, an animal or a child. If it is not right to inflict pain on people, it is also wrong to inflict pain on nonhumans. In addition, it is suggested that the lives of creatures, both small and large, have value and should be respected. The right to be treated with respect does not rely on the capability to reason. Just like an insane should be treated with respect despite inability to act rationally, animals should also be treated with respect, this does not involve people exploiting animals and depriving them of their right to life. The right to treatment with respect rests on a creature being a subject of life, with certain preferences, experiences and interests. Like human beings, animals are subjects of life. Painful animal testing is not morally permissible. Utilitarianism does not commence with rules but with goals, and therefore, it has significant normative specificity. Utilitarian approach might appear quite appealing because it reduces moral choices to simple arithmetic. The way people treat nonhuman creatures, especially animals, indicates a distinction they make between humans, whom we consider as individuals, and nonhumans, whom we consider as things. There are certain counterarguments that hinge on whether animals are moral beings. The macro component of moral theory requires that we ask what the theory envisages as the appropriate state, which would be attained if the theory under consideration was accepted. Finally, issue can be supported by claiming that most scientific research involving animal testing has no scientific merit, since most scientific experiments are performed out of curiosity. Animals are shocked, burned, stared and poisoned as researchers look for information that might result in human benefit.